Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J. (2020)

Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J. (2020). The conspiracy theory handbook. Available at http://sks.to/conspiracy


 * (3) Distinguishing between real conspiracies and conspiracy theories
 * -"Typically, conspiracy theories are not supported by evidence that withstands scrutiny..."
 * -"Conspirational thinking is characterized by being hyperskeptical of all information that does not fit the theory, over-interpreting evidence that supports a preferred theory, and inconsistency."


 * (4) "Why are conspiracy theories popular?"
 * -"Feeling of powerlessness People who feel powerless or vulnerable are more likely to endorse and spread conspiracy theories."
 * -"Explaining unlikely events ... people tend to propose conspiratorial explanations for events that are highly unlikely. Conspiracy theories act as a coping mechanism to help people handle uncertainty."
 * -"Coping with threats ... A conspiracy theory satisfied the need for a "big" event to have a big cause..."
 * -"Disputing mainstream politics Conspiracy theories are used to dispute mainstream political interpretations."


 * (6-7) "CONSPIR: The seven traits of conspiratorial thinking"
 * -"Contradictory Conspiracy theorists can simultaneously believe in ideas that are mutually contradictory."
 * -"Overriding suspicion Conspirational thinking involves a nihilistic degree of skepticism towards the official account."
 * -"Nefarious intent The motivations behind any presumed conspiracy are invariably assumed to be nefarious."
 * -"Something must be wrong ... the official account is based on deception."
 * -"Persecuted victim Conspiracy theorits perceive and present themselves as the victim of organized persecution."
 * -"Immune to evidence Conspiracy theories are inherently self-sealing ..."
 * -"Re-interpreting randomness The overriding suspicion found in conspirational thinking frequently results in the belief that nothing occurs by accident."


 * (8-9) Reducing the spread of conspiracy theories:
 * -Ask four questions: "Do I recognize the news organization that posted the story? Does the information in the post seem believable? Is the post written in a style that I expect from a professional news organization? Is the post politically motivated?"
 * - Prebunking/ innoculation
 * - Debunking: fact-based debunking; source-based debunking "attempts to reduce the credibility of conspiracy theorists" and empathy-based debunking "compassionately call[s] attention to the targets of conspiracy theories"; logic-based debunking explains "the logical fallacies"; "[l]inks to a fact-checker website"
 * -Empowering people "Conspiracy thinking is associated with feeling of reduced control and perceived threat. ... There are several ways to "cognitively empower" people, such as encouraging them to think analytically rather than relying on their intuition." Priming their sense of control. Show that procedural justice principles are followed.


 * (10) Debunking "can be effective with the general public" as can be "ridicule"
 * (10) Reaching conspiracy theorists:
 * -"Trusted messengers Counter-messages created by former members of an extremist community ("exiters") are evaluated more positively and remembered longer than messages from other sources."
 * -"Affirm critical thinking ... but then redirect this approach towards a more critical analysis of the conspracy theory."
 * -"Show empathy ... and seek to build understanding with the other party"
 * -"Aggresively deconstructing or ridiculing a conspiracy theory, or focusing on a "winning" argument, runs the risk of being automatically rejected."


 * "...the traits of conspirational thinking (CONSPIR) are not a productive way to uncover real conspiracies. Rather, conventional thinking that values healthy skepticism, evidence, and consistency are necessary ingredients to uncover real attempts to deceive the public."